Table of Contents
Tables, Figures, and Boxes xviii
Preface xxi
About the Authors xxiv
Part I In Search of the Two Congresses
1 The Two Congresses 3
The Dual Nature of Congress 4
Legislators' Tasks 5
Popular Images 6
The Constitutional Basis 7
Back to Burke 8
The Two Congresses in Comparative Context 9
Divergent Views of Congress 11
2 Evolution of the Modern Congress 15
Antecedents of Congress 15
The English Heritage 16
The Colonial Experience 16
Congress in the Constitution 19
Powers of Congress 19
Limits on Legislative Power 22
Separate Branches, Shared Powers 23
Judicial Review 25
Bicameralism 27
Institutional Evolution 28
Workload 29
The Size of Congress 30
Conflict with the Executive Branch 31
Partisan Interests 32
Members' Individual Interests 33
Evolution of the Legislator's Job 35
The Congressional Career 36
Professionalization 38
Constituency Demands 38
Conclusion 39
Part II A Congress of Ambassadors
3 Going for It: Recruitment and Candidacy 43
Formal Rules of the Game 43
Senate Apportionment 44
House Apportionment 45
Districting in the House 47
Malapportionment 50
Gerrymandering 51
Majority-Minority Districts 57
Becoming a Candidate 62
Called or Chosen? 62
Amateurs and Professionals 65
Finding Quality Candidates 66
Nominating Politics 68
Rules of the Nominating Game 69
Parties and Nominations 69
Sizing up the Primary System 70
Conclusion 70
4 Making It: The Electoral Game 73
Campaign Strategies 74
Asking the Right Questions 74
Choosing the Message 75
Campaign Resources 76
Campaign Finance Regulations 77
Incumbents versus Challengers 81
Allocating Resources 83
Organizing the Campaign 84
Campaign Techniques 85
The Air War: Media and Other Mass Appeals 85
The Ground War: Pressing the Flesh and Other Forms of Close Contact 88
The Parallel Campaigns 89
Who Votes? 90
Reasons for Not Voting 90
Biases of Voting 92
How Voters Decide 93
Party Loyalties 93
The Appeal of Candidates 98
Issue Voting 100
Election Outcomes 104
Party Balance 104
Party Alignment and Realignment 107
Turnover and Representation 108
Conclusion 108
5 Being There: Hill Styles and Home Styles 111
Hill Styles 112
Who Are the Legislators? 112
Congressional Roles 118
How Do Legislators Spend Their Time? 121
The Shape of the Washington Career 122
Looking Homeward 123
Independent Judgment or Constituency Opinion? 123
What Are Constituencies? 124
Home Styles 128
Office of the Member Inc. 130
Road Tripping 130
Constituency Casework 131
Personal Staff 132
Members and the Media 134
Mail 134
Feeding the Local Press 135
Conclusion 137
Part III A Deliberative Assembly of One Nation
6 Leaders and Parties in Congress 139
The Speaker of the House 142
The Changing Role of the Speaker 144
The Speakers Influence: Style and Context 149
House Floor Leaders 151
House Whips 154
Leaders of the Senate 155
Presiding Officers 155
Floor Leaders 155
Selection of Leaders 162
Leadership Activities 163
Institutional Tasks 163
Party Tasks 164
Party Caucuses, Committees, and Informal Groups 166
Party Caucuses 166
Party Committees 167
Informal Party Groups 167
Party Continuity and Change 169
Intense Party Conflict 169
The Two-Party System 170
Advances in Coalition Building 170
Conclusion 173
7 Committees: Workshops of Congress 175
The Purposes of Committees 176
Evolution of the Committee System 177
Types of Committees 178
Standing Committees 179
Select, or Special, Committees 183
Joint Committees 184
Conference Committees 185
The Assignment Process 186
The Pecking Order 186
Preferences and Politicking 187
How Assignments Are Made 189
Approval by Party Caucuses and the Chamber 197
Committee Leadership 197
Policy Making in Committee 199
Overlapping Jurisdictions 199
Multiple Referrals 202
Where Bills Go 203
The Policy Environment 206
Committee Staff 207
Committee Reform and Change 209
Homeland Security Committees 209
Constricting the Authority of Committee Chairs 211
Party Task Forces 214
Bypassing Committees 216
Conclusion 216
8 Congressional Rules and Procedures 219
Introduction of Bills 220
Drafting 224
Timing 226
Referral of Bills 226
Scheduling in the House 228
Shortcuts for Minor Bills 230
The Strategic Role of the Rules Committee 231
Dislodging a Bill from Committee 238
House Floor Procedures 241
Adoption of the Rule 241
Committee of the Whole 242
General Debate 242
The Amending Phase 243
Voting 243
Recommit and Final Passage 244
Scheduling in the Senate 245
Unanimous-Consent Agreements 246
Ways to Extract Bills From Committee 247
Senate Floor Procedures 249
Normal Routine 249
Holds, Filibusters, and Cloture 251
Resolving House-Senate Differences 257
Selection of Conferees 258
Openness and Bargaining 258
The Conference Report 259
Conclusion 259
9 Decision Making in Congress 261
The Power to Choose 263
Types of Decisions 263
Specializing 264
Timing of Decisions 265
Taking the Lead 265
Taking Part 266
Offering Amendments 267
Casting Votes 268
What Do Votes Mean? 270
Determinants of Voting 271
Party and Voting 271
Ideology and Voting 276
Constituency and Voting 280
The Presidency and Voting 283
Cue-Givers and Roll Call Votes 285
Legislative Bargaining 285
Implicit and Explicit Bargaining 286
Logrolling 287
Bargaining Strategy 288
Conclusion 289
Part IV Policy Making and Change in the Two Congresses
10 Congress and the President 293
Constitutional Powers 294
Veto Bargaining 295
The Line-Item Veto 297
The Administrative President 298
Leadership 302
The President's Power to Persuade 303
Going Public: The Rhetorical President 306
Congressional Opinion Leadership 310
The "Two Presidencies" 310
Sources of Legislative-Executive Conflict and Cooperation 312
Party Loyalties 313
Public Expectations 315
Different Constituencies 316
Different Time Perspectives 317
The Balance of Power 317
Conclusion 319
11 Congress and the Bureaucracy 321
Congress Organizes the Executive Branch 322
Senate Confirmation of Presidential Appointees 324
The Personnel System 329
The Rulemaking Process 333
Congressional Control of the Bureaucracy 337
Hearings and Investigations 339
Congressional Vetoes 340
Mandatory Reports 341
Nonstatutory Controls 341
Inspectors General 342
The Appropriations Process 342
Impeachment 343
Oversight: An Evaluation 344
Micromanagement 345
Conclusion 347
12 Congress and the Courts 349
The Federal Courts 350
The Court as Umpire 352
Separation of Powers 353
Federalism 354
Statutory Interpretation 355
Legislative Checks on the Judiciary 357
Advice and Consent for Judicial Nominees 362
Supreme Court Nominations 363
The Lower Courts 369
Conclusion 373
13 Congress and Organized Interests 375
American Pluralism 376
A Capital of Interests 376
A Nation of Joiners 377
Biases of Interest Representation 378
Pressure Group Methods 381
Direct Lobbying 382
Social Lobbying 383
Coalition Lobbying 384
Grassroots Lobbying 385
Electronic Lobbying 386
Groups and the Electoral Connection 386
Groups and Campaign Fund-Raising 387
Groups and Advocacy Campaigns 388
Rating Legislators 389
Groups, Lobbying, and Legislative Politics 390
The Role of Money 390
Lobbying and Legislation 391
Subgovernments 392
Regulation of Lobbying 393
The 1946 Lobbying Law 394
The Lobby Disclosure Act of 1995 394
The Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007 395
Foreign Lobbying 396
Conclusion 397
14 Congress, Budgets, and Domestic Policy Making 399
Stages of Policy Making 401
Setting the Agenda 401
Formulating Policy 402
Adopting Policy 403
Implementing Policy 404
Types of Domestic Policies 404
Distributive Policies 407
Regulatory Policies 408
Redistributive Policies 408
Characteristics of Congressional Policy Making 408
Bicameralism 409
Localism 409
Piecemeal Policy Making 410
Symbolic Policy Making 410
Reactive Policy Making 411
Congressional Budgeting 411
Authorizations and Appropriations 413
Backdoor Spending Techniques 416
The Challenge of Entitlements 418
The 1974 Budget Act 421
Concurrent Budget Resolution 422
Reconciliation 424
CBO Scores 426
A Revised Budget Process 427
Conclusion 429
15 Congress and National-Security Policies 431
Constitutional Powers 434
The President Proposes 434
Congress Reacts 435
Who Speaks for Congress? 436
Types of Foreign and National-Security Policies 438
Structural Policies 439
The Military-Industrial-Congressional Complex 441
Trade Politics 443
Strategic Policies 446
The Power of the Purse 447
Treaties and Executive Agreements 448
Other Policy-Making Powers of Congress 450
Crisis Policies: The War Powers 451
Constitutional Powers 452
The War Powers Resolution 453
Authorization of U.S. Military Action against the Islamic State 454
Changes in Warfare 456
Conclusion 458
Part V Conclusion
16 The Two Congresses and the American People 461
Congress as Politicians 463
Members' Bonds with Constituents 463
Questions of Ethics 464
Congress as Institution 468
Policy Success and Stalemate 468
Assessing the Congressional Process 469
Media Coverage 473
Citizens' Attitudes toward Congress 474
Twenty-First-Century Challenges 476
Security 476
Checks and Imbalances? 476
Reference Materials
Appendix A Party Control: Presidency, Senate, House, 1901-2017 A2
Appendix B Internships: Getting Experience on Capitol Hill A4
Suggested Readings S1
Notes N1
Index I1