Table of Contents
Preface xi
Part I The Concept of Culture
1 The Rules of the Social Game 3
Different Minds but Common Problems 4
Culture as Mental Programming 4
Symbols, Heroes, Rituals, and Values 7
Culture Reproduces Itself 10
No Group Can Escape Culture 11
Values and the Moral Circle 12
Boundaries of the Moral Circle: Religion and Philosophy 13
Beyond Race and Family 14
We and They 16
Ideologies as Group Markers 17
Layers of Culture 17
Culture Change: Changing Practices, Stable Values 18
National Culture Differences 20
National Identities, Values, and Institutions 22
What About National Management Cultures? 24
Cultural Relativism 25
Culture as a Phoenix 26
2 Studying Cultural Differences 27
Measuring Values 28
Dimensions of National Cultures 29
Using Correlations 32
Replications of the IBM Research 34
Extending the IBM Model: The Chinese Value Survey 37
Validation of the Country Culture Scores against Other Measures 38
Culture Scores and Personality Scores: No Reason for Stereotyping 39
Other Classifications of National Cultures 40
A Second Expansion of the Hofstede Dimensional Model: Minkov's Exploration of the World Values Survey 44
Cultural Differences According to Region, Ethnicity, Religion, Gender, Generation, and Class 45
Organizational Cultures 47
Reading Mental Programs: Suggestions for Researchers 47
Part II Dimensions of National Cultures
3 More Equal than Others 53
Inequality in Society 54
Measuring the Degree of Inequality in Society: The Power Distance Index 55
Power Distance Defined 60
Power Distance in Replication Studies 62
Power Distance Differences within Countries: Social Class, Education Level, and Occupation 64
Measures Associated with Power Distance: The Structure in This and Following Chapters 66
Power Distance Difference among Countries: Roots in the Family 67
Power Distance at School 69
Power Distance and Health Care 71
Power Distance in the Workplace 73
Power Distance and the State 75
Power Distance and Ideas 79
Origins of Power Distance Differences 82
The Future of Power Distance Differences 86
4 I, We, and They 89
The Individual and the Collective in Society 90
Measuring the Degree of Individualism in Society 92
Individualism and Collectivism in the World Values Survey: Universalism Versus Exclusionism 94
Individualism and Collectivism in Other Cross-National Studies 99
Are Individualism and Collectivism One or Two Dimensions? 102
Collectivism Versus Power Distance 102
Individualism and Collectivism According to Occupation 105
Individualism and Collectivism in the Family 106
Language, Personality, and Behavior in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures 112
Individualism and Collectivism at School 117
Individualism and Collectivism in the Workplace 119
Individualism, Collectivism, and the Internet 123
Individualism, Collectivism, and the State 125
Individualism, Collectivism, and Ideas 127
Origins of Individualism-Collectivism Differences 131
The Future of Individualism and Collectivism 133
5 He, She, and(S)he 135
Assertiveness Versus Modesty 136
Genders and Gender Roles 137
Masculinity-Femininity as a Dimension of Societal Culture 138
Masculinity and Femininity in Other Cross-National Studies 144
Masculinity Versus Individualism 146
Are Masculinity and Femininity One or Two Dimensions? 146
Country Masculinity Scores by Gender and Gender Scores by Age 148
Masculinity and Femininity According to Occupation 150
Masculinity and Femininity in the Family 151
Masculinity and Femininity in Gender Roles and Sex 154
Masculinity and Femininity in Education 158
Masculinity and Femininity in Shopping 163
Masculinity and Femininity in the Workplace 164
Masculinity, Femininity, and the State 170
Masculinity, Femininity, and Religion 175
Origins of Masculinity-Femininity Differences 180
The Future of Differences in Masculinity and Femininity 184
6 What Is Different Is Dangerous 187
The Avoidance of Uncertainty 188
Measuring the (In)tolerance of Ambiguity in Society: The Uncertainty-Avoidance Index 190
Uncertainty Avoidance and Anxiety 195
Uncertainty Avoidance Is Not the Same as Risk Avoidance 197
Uncertainty Avoidance in Replication Studies: Project GLOBE 198
Uncertainty Avoidance According to Occupation, Gender, and Age 199
Uncertainty Avoidance in the Family 200
Uncertainty Avoidance, Health, and (Un)happiness 202
Uncertainty Avoidance at School 205
Uncertainty Avoidance in Shopping 206
Uncertainty Avoidance in the Workplace 208
Uncertainty Avoidance, Masculinity, and Motivation 213
Uncertainty Avoidance, the Citizen, and the State 216
Uncertainty Avoidance and Corruption 221
Uncertainty Avoidance, Xenophobia, and Nationalism 224
Uncertainty Avoidance, Religion, and Ideas 226
Origins of Uncertainty-Avoidance Differences 232
The Future of Uncertainty-Avoidance Differences 233
7 Yesterday, Now, or Later? 235
National Values and the Teachings of Confucius 236
Implications of LTO-CVS Differences for Family Life 240
Implications of LTO-CVS Differences for Business 242
Implications of LTO-CVS Differences for Ways of Thinking 246
Long-Term Orientation Scores Based on World Values Survey Data 252
Long-Term Orientation and the GLOBE Dimensions 259
Long- and Short-Term Orientation, Family Relations, and School Results 260
Long- and Short-Term Orientation and Economic Growth 262
Economic Growth and Politics 267
Fundamentalisms as Short-Term Orientation 269
Short-Term Orientation in Africa 271
The Future of Long- and Short-Term Orientation 274
8 Light or Dark? 277
The Nature of Subjective Well-Being 278
Subjective Well-Being and the World Values Survey 279
Indulgence Versus Restraint as a Societal Dimension 280
Indulgence Versus Restraint and Subjective Well-Being in Other Cross-National Studies 288
Indulgence Versus Restraint, Subjective Health, Optimism, and Birthrates 289
Indulgence Versus Restraint, Importance of Friends, and Consumer Attitudes 290
Indulgence Versus Restraint and Sexual Relationships 293
Indulgence Versus Restraint in the Workplace 294
Indulgence Versus Restraint and the State 295
Origins of Societal Differences in Indulgence Versus Restraint 296
Part III Cultures in Organizations
9 Pyramids, Machines, Markets, and Families: Organizing Across Nations 301
Implicit Models of Organizations 302
Management Professors Are Human 307
Culture and Organizational Structure: Elaborating on Mintzberg 312
Planning, Control, and Accounting 315
Corporate Governance and Business Goals 320
Motivation Theories and Practices 327
Leadership, Decision Making, and Empowerment 331
Performance Appraisal and Management by Objectives 334
Management Training and Organization Development 336
Conclusion: Nationality Defines Organizational Rationality 337
10 The Elephant and the Stork: Organizational Cultures 341
The Organizational Culture Craze 343
Differences between Organizational and National Cultures: The IRIC Project 346
Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches in the IRIC Project 349
Results of the In-Depth Interviews: The SAS Case 351
Results of the Survey: Six Dimensions of Organizational Cultures 353
The Scope for Competitive Advantages in Cultural Matters 358
Organizational Culture and Other Organizational Characteristics 360
Organizational Subcultures 364
Individual Perceptions of Organizational Cultures 366
Gardens, Bouquets, and Flowers of Social Science 368
Occupational Cultures 368
Conclusions from the IRIC Research Project: Dimensions Versus Gestalts 370
Managing (with) Organizational Culture 371
Part IV Implications
11 Intercultural Encounters 381
Intended Versus Unintended Intercultural Conflict 382
Culture Shock and Acculturation 384
Ethnocentrism and Xenophilia 387
Group Encounters: Auto- and Heterostereotypes 387
Language and Humor 388
The Influence of Communication Technologies 391
Intercultural Encounters in Tourism 392
Intercultural Encounters in Schools 393
Minorities, Migrants, and Refugees 395
Intercultural Negotiations 399
Multinational Business Organizations 402
Coordinating Multinationals: Structure Should Follow Culture 406
Expanding Multinationals: International Mergers and Other Ventures 407
International Marketing, Advertising, and Consumer Behavior 409
International Politics and International Organizations 412
Economic Development, Nondevelopment, and Development Cooperation 416
Learning Intercultural Communication 419
Educating for Intercultural Understanding: Suggestions for Parents 423
Spreading Multicultural Understanding: The Role of the Media 425
Global Challenges Call for Intercultural Cooperation 426
12 The Evolution of Cultures 431
A Time-Machine Journey Through History 433
Five Million to One Million Years Ago: Lonely Planet 434
One Million to Forty Thousand Years Ago: Ice and Fire 436
Forty Thousand to Ten Thousand Years Ago: Creative Spark, Extermination 438
Twelve Thousand to Seven Thousand Five Hundred Years Ago: Villages and Agriculture 442
Seven Thousand Five Hundred Years Ago Until Now: Large-Scale Civilizations 447
Sources of Cultural Diversity and Change 453
The End of History? No! 455
The Essence of Evolution 456
Evolution: More than Genes 459
Evolution Beyond Selfishness: Groups over Individuals 464
Individuals and Institutions in the Stream of Life 466
Evolution at Work Today 468
The Future of Culture 473
Notes 479
Glossary 515
Bibliography 525
Name Index 547
Subject Index 549
