Table of Contents
Foreword v
Preface vii
Acknowledgements xi
Table of Cases xxi
Table of Legislation xlv
Table of International Treaties and Conventions li
1 Introduction 1
I The Structure of the Argument 7
Part 1 A Tort-Based Approach to Damages for Human Rights Breaches
2 The Tort Framework 13
I Setting the Scene: Vindication, Damages and Torts Theory 14
A The Concept of Vindication in the Law of Torts 14
i Rights and Interests 15
ii Vindication and Other Functions 17
B Damages 21
C Torts Theory 23
II Distinguishing Vindicatory and Compensatory Torts 25
A Vindicatory Torts: Torts Actionable Per Se 25
i Prerequisites to Actionability 26
ii Strictness of Liability 27
iii Onus 30
iv Defences 31
v Other Features 32
B Compensatory Torts: Negligence 32
i The Gist: Actionable Loss 33
ii Fault 35
iii Causation 36
iv Duty of Care 39
v Onus and Defences 40
vi Rights-Based, Vindicatory Theories of Negligence 41
C Torts Which Combine Vindication and Compensation: Private Nuisance 45
III Vindication and Damages 46
A Range of Damages 47
B Compensatory Damages and Vindication 50
C Compensatory Damages within Torts Actionable Per Se 53
i Overview 54
ii Normative Damage Inherent in the Interference 58
iii The Supreme Court Decision in Lumba: Deviation from Orthodoxy 61
iv Recovery and Assessment of Damages for Normative Damage 67
v Consequential Losses 70
vi Other Features of Damages within Torts Actionable Per Se 72
IV Conclusions 73
3 A Tort-Based Approach to Human Rights Damages 76
I A Tort-Based Approach as a Matter of Principle 76
A Common Aims of Protection and Vindication: Background 77
B Common Aims of Protection and Vindication: Significant Doctrinal Features 82
i Standing 83
ii Actionable Per Se 83
iii Strict Liability 83
iv Defences 85
v Substantive Questions for the Judiciary 87
vi Remedies 87
vii Procedure 88
viii Miscellaneous 89
C Common Functions, the Implications for Damages, and the Prevailing Approach to Human Rights Damages 89
D Are Positive Obligations Distinguishable? 97
E Common Functions, Common Interests and Coherence 104
F What Tort Can Offer 113
II The Tort-Based Approach: Core Features 116
A Non-Compensatory Damages 116
i Nominal Damages 117
ii User and Gain-Based Measures 117
iii Exemplary Damages 122
iv Vindicatory Damages 125
B Compensatory Damages 129
i Non-Pecuniary Damage and Loss 130
ii Flexibility in Methodology 134
iii Pecuniary Loss 135
iv Recoverable Heads Not Limited to those Recognised at Common Law 136
III The Relationship Between Human Rights Damages and Other Judicial Remedies 140
A Monetary Remedies 140
i General 140
ii Disciplining the Current Approach to Concurrent Liability Under the HRA: Case Study on Nuisance and Article 8 142
B Specific Relief 146
i Situations where Specific Relief shall be Sufficient Remedy 146
ii Situations where Specific Relief is Granted to Prevent a Wrong 147
iii Situations where Specific Relief and Damages are Both Required 148
iv Situations where Specific Relief is of No Relevance 149
v Situations where Damages may be Awarded in Lieu of Injunctive Relief 150
vi Specific Relief of Primary Importance in Human Rights Law? 152
IV The Tort-Based Approach and the Provisions of the HRA 153
A Decision to Award Damages 153
B Quantum and Range of Damages 157
V Flawed Tort-Based Approaches: The United States Constitutional Tort jurisprudence 159
Part 2 Human Rights Damages and the Public Law-Private Law Distinction
4 The Public Law-Private Law Distinction 167
Section 1 The Public Law-Private Law Distinction as a Tool For Legal Development 171
I Lack of an Anchor 171
II Choppy Seas: The Implications of 'Publicness' 179
III Oceans or Seas of Doctrine? The Pluralistic Nature of Public Law Doctrine 184
IV Pulling Into Port: Conclusion 187
Section 2 The Public Law-Private Law Distinction and Human Rights Damages 189
I Protection of the Public and Human Rights Damages: The Approach in Anufrijeva 189
A The Public Interest Theory of Public Law 190
B The Public Interest Theory and Human Rights Damages 193
C Understanding the Public Interest Theory as a Product of Its Time 198
II Individual Rights and the Public Interest Theory of Public Law 199
A Individual Rights versus Public Duties, Individual Interests versus Public Interests 200
B Rights versus Public Duties: The Role of the Court 209
C Public Law and Private Law: The Procedural Dimension 212
III Conclusion: Slaying Chimaera 218
IV Is the Public Interest Approach the Only 'Public Law' Approach? 220
Part 3 Alternative Approaches to Damages for Human Rights Breaches
Introduction 228
I The Case Law Under the Act 229
II Context: No Other Remedy 233
5 Human Rights Damages and 'Just Satisfaction': The 'Mirror' Approach 235
Section 1 The Terms of the HRA 238
I Principles or Practice? 241
A Quantum 244
II A Section 2(1) Analogy? 245
III The 'Ordinary' Approach 250
Section 2 The Supranational Dimension 252
I Supranational versus Domestic Context 252
A No Strasbourg Imperative 252
B The Subsidiary Role of the European Court of Human Rights 254
C The Conceptual Nature of Convention Rights: International Law versus Domestic Law 258
D The Supranational Context 261
E The English Courts' (Lack of) Consideration of the Distinctiveness of Supranational Context 263
F Compliance with Convention Requirements 266
II Problematic Jurisprudences: Supranational and Municipal 268
A The Supranational Jurisprudence 269
B Limited Guidance 275
C Emergence of a Problematic Domestic Jurisprudence 279
i Problems of Reasoning 280
ii Problems of Broad Discretion: Subjective Concerns and Inconsistency 286
iii Quantum 288
iv Incoherence 290
D Supplementing Strasbourg 292
Section 3 The Methodology of the Mirror Approach 297
I A Problematic Method 297
II Quantum 301
HI Inconsistent Method and the Risk of Skewed Interpretation 303
IV '[O]ne Damn Thing after Another' 307
Section 4 The Future of the Mirror Approach Post-Faulkner 310
I Delphic Dicta 310
II Beginnings of a Liberalisation of Approach? 313
III A British Bill of Rights? 319
Section 5 Overview 321
6 Interest-Balancing Approaches 324
Section 1 Doctrinal Analysis of the Interest-Balancing Approach 326
I The Interest-Balancing Approach and the Terms of the HRA 326
II The Interest-Balancing Approach and Convention Requirements 330
A Requirements of Article 13 (and Articles 34 and 35(1)) 331
B Substantive Rights and Remedies 334
C Absolute Nature of Article 13 335
D Proportionality 336
III The Interest-Balancing Approach and Fundamental Principles of English Law 337
A Ubi Ius, Ibi Remedium 337
B The Principle of Equality 340
Section 2 Normative Analysis of the Interest-Balancing Approach 342
I Concerns that may justify an Interest-Balancing Approach 343
II The Importance of Remedying Rights-Violations 345
III Prejudice to the Public Interest: Only in Public Law? 353
IV Is the Interest-Balancing Approach Necessary? 355
V Public Interest Factors: A Critical Analysis 361
A Depletion of Resources Available to Benefit the Wider Community 363
i The Importance of a Robust, Evidence-Based Approach 367
ii Constitutional, Institutional and Practical Concerns 370
iii Financial Impact in Other Parts of Public Law 372
B Moral Status of the Victim 375
C Pragmatic Political Concerns 380
D Chilling Effects 382
i An Empirical Void 382
ii Empirical Evidence and Difficulties of Prediction 383
iii Limitations of Courts 389
E Floodgates and 'Litigation Culture' 390
F Leaving the Political Branches to Respond: Is it Realistic? 397
i Case Studies 399
VI Rule-of-Law and Other Concerns Raised by the Discretionary Nature of the Interest-Balancing Approach 405
VII Refining the Interest-Balancing Approach 409
A Individual versus Public: Avoiding a False Dichotomy 409
B Starting-Point, Structure and Weighting of Factors 418
Section 3 Conclusions 423
7 Other Methods of Limiting Human Rights Damages 426
I Degree of Loss Under Article 41, ECHR 427
II EU Law, Francovich Liability and the 'Sufficiently Serious' Criterion 433
A The Francovich Criteria 434
B Should the Francovich Criteria Govern Human Rights Damages? 435
i Different Interests 435
ii A Marginal Remedy 437
iii Range of Institutions Potentially Liable 438
iv Different Contexts: EU Law versus Domestic Human Rights Law 438
C Conclusion 445
III Immunities from Suit in US Constitutional Tort Law 446
A The Importance of Context 447
i Constitutional Concerns 448
ii Widespread Governmental and Official Immunities 451
iii Relevant Defendant 456
iv Instrumentalist Conception of Liability 458
B The Qualified Immunity Doctrine 460
i The 'Clearly Established' Element 460
ii The 'Objective Reasonableness' Element 463
iii Avoidance of Substantive Constitutional Issues 466
C Conclusion 468
8 Conclusion 470
Index 477
