Language Learners with Special Needs: An International Perspective

by Judit Kormos, Edit H. Kontra

Overview

In this age of globalisation, people who do not speak a foreign language are at a serious disadvantage in the job market. It is therefore of great relevance that learners with learning disabilities are also provided with equal and appropriate opportunities to acquire a second or foreign language. The aim of the book is to give readers an insight into the language learning process of learners with disabilities. The articles discuss the learning process and the teaching of dyslexic as well as hearing impaired learners in various parts of the world, from the USA and Canada to England, Norway, Poland and Hungary. The intended audience of the book is language teachers, MA and MEd students, and researchers in the field of SLA, applied linguistics, or special education.

Product Details

ISBN-13:	9781847690890
Publisher:	Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Publication date:	08/15/2008
Series:	Second Language Acquisition Series , #31
Edition description:	New Edition
Pages:	248
Product dimensions:	6.10(w) x 9.20(h) x 0.60(d)

About the Author

Judit Kormos is a senior lecturer at the Department of Linguistics and English Language, Lancaster University. She is the editor of the volume Language Learners with Special Needs: An International Perspective. She was the principal investigator of a research and teacher training project on the language learning processes of dyslexic and Deaf learners in Hungary.

Edit H. Kontra is associate professor at the Department of English Applied Linguistics of Eötvös Lorand University, Budapest. Her main research interest lies in individual differences, language testing and the methodology of teaching EFL.

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Language Learners with Special Needs

An International Perspective

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By Judit Kormos, Edit H. Kontra

Multilingual Matters

Copyright © 2008 Judit Kormos, Edit H. Kontra
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-78309-828-6

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CHAPTER 1

L1 and L2 Literacy, Aptitude and Affective Variables as Discriminators Among High- and Low-achieving L2 Learners with Special Needs

RICHARD L. SPARKS, LEONORE GANSCHOW and JON PATTON

Introduction

In 1975 the United States government issued Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, which guarantees individuals aged 3–21 with disabilities the right to a free and appropriate public education. (In the 1990s, the law was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA.) Students classified as learning disabled (LD) and with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are covered under this act. Students classified as LD generally receive this classification because they exhibit a discrepancy between their IQ on a standardised measure of intelligence and their reading, writing, and/or math skills on standardised measures of academic achievement. Students diagnosed with ADHD are supposed to meet Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV (DSM-IV) criteria for this disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Students can be classified as LD or ADHD as early as first grade and receive services from teachers trained in special education. In the United States the study of an L2 generally does not begin until high school, that is, Grade 9. In most states, the study of an L2 is not required for graduation but is strongly recommended for those students who plan to attend college.

Since the early 1980s the authors have focused their research on studies of the relationship between L1 (native language) and L2 (foreign language) learning, and, especially the impact of L1 skills on L2 learning among students with special needs. Since the study of an L2 generally does not begin until high school (and sometimes continues in college), all of their studies have focused on these older populations. Early searches of the literature yielded few studies on this topic in the L1, L2 or special education literature, whereupon they began collaborating with educators across the disciplines of foreign language, linguistics and special education. There is now a substantial body of research on L1/L2 learning in older L2 learners, particularly students considered to be 'at-risk' for learning an L2. Some students in these studies were classified as LD or ADHD; many other students experienced learning difficulties in L2 classroom settings but were not classified as disabled. In the 1960s L2 educator Paul Pimsleur and his colleagues (Pimsleur et al., 1964) referred to the problem of L2 learners as 'underachievers'; other terms, such as low-achieving and at-risk, have been used to describe students who struggle to learn an L2 in classroom settings. As the review of literature will show, students classified as LD and other at-risk learners enrolled in L2 classes share similar language profiles, whereas ADHD students enrolled in L2 classes, for the most part, do not exhibit language difficulties and often have more in common with not-at-risk L2 learners.

In the present study the authors were interested in further clarifying the nature of L2 difficulties among four distinct student groups of L2 learners in the United States: students classified as LD, students classified as having ADHD, low-achieving L2 learners, and high-achieving L2 learners. The investigation addressed the following question: How accurately does a battery of L1 and L2 tests distinguish the four populations? Decisions about which testing instruments (L1 and L2) to use for the study were based on research on best predictors of performance in L2 courses (see review by Ganschow & Sparks, 2001). A previous study conducted with the same population as the current study is described in the review of literature (Sparks et al., 2008a). However, the emphasis in this earlier study lay on examining similarities and differences among the four groups on the test battery, whereas the present study focuses on the 'legitimacy' of the categorisations of these four distinct groups and the testing measures that best identify group membership.

The Role of L1 for L2 Learning

In 1989, Sparks and Ganschow proposed the Linguistic Coding Differences Hypothesis, or LCDH (Sparks et al., 1989) to explain why students beginning the study of an L2 might have difficulties with learning the L2 in classroom settings. In the L1 literature, it is well documented that most individuals who have difficulty learning to read and spell struggle with certain language rule systems: the phonological (phonological awareness), phonological/orthographic (sound-letter correspondences) and grammar systems (see Rayner et al., 2001). Thus, poor readers/writers/spellers are inefficient at decoding and encoding words (Snow et al., 1998), which in turn affects reading and writing fluency (Wolf, 2001).

In the LCDH, Sparks and Ganschow speculate that L2 learning is built largely on L1 skills and that problems in L1 will carry over into the L2 (Sparks, 1995; Sparks & Ganschow, 1991, 1993a, 1995a). In the L2 literature, Cummins (1984) has made similar claims with his Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis. Thus, in both Cummins' hypothesis and the LCDH, proficiency in the L2 is thought to be partially dependent on comp etence in the L1.

Most of Sparks et al.'s studies over the years have focused on verifying the LCDH hypothesis. The studies include short- and long-term prediction studies (Sparks et al., 1995, 1997c, 2006); comparisons of good and poor L2 learners (Ganschow & Sparks, 1995; Ganschow et al., 1991; Sparks & Ganschow, 1993b; Sparks et al., 1998b, 1992a, b); teacher and parent perception studies (Sparks & Ganschow, 1995b, 1996; Sparks et al., 2004a); and studies on the efficacy of direct instructional methods in the phonological and grammatical systems for at-risk learners in the L2 (Ganschow & Sparks, 1995; Sparks & Ganschow, 1993c; Sparks et al., 1992c, 1996, 1997, 1998a). What is clear from these studies is that individuals who have difficulties with the phonological, phonological/orthographic and syntactic components of the L1 as reflected on tests of word decoding, spelling, phonological awareness and grammar are likely to experience related difficulties in the L2. Low levels of L2 aptitude as reflected in scores on the Modern Language Aptitude Test (Carroll & Sapon, 1959) also differ entiate good and poor L2 learners. The origins of L2 learning difficulties of low-achieving students have not been found to lie in the areas of intelligence and vocabulary learning or verbal short-term memory. Other educators have reported similar findings in younger populations. Dufva and Voeten (1999) found that the L1 literacy and phonological processing skills of Finnish children in first grade predicted performance in English in the third grade. Hulstijn and Bossers (1992) showed that individual differences in L2 learning could be accounted for by individual differences in L1 skills among Dutch elementary age students. In two different studies, Kahn-Horwitz et al. (2005, 2006) reported that L1 skills in Hebrew were strong predictors of L2 skills in English among elementary age students. Likewise, cross-linguistic studies have also found relationships between L1 phonological/orthographic skills, especially word decoding, and L2 reading skill. In these studies, L1 phonological awareness has been found to be a good predictor of L2 decoding and reading skills (Cisero & Royer, 1995; Comeau et al., 1999; Lindsey et al., 2003). For a comprehensive review of L2 reading, see Koda (2005).

Commonly Used Predictors of Success in L2 Learning

Specific L2 measures have been instrumental in shaping research on the prediction of L2 performance in classroom settings. In particular, they include measures of L2 aptitude, learning styles and L2 affective factors, such as motivation and anxiety. In the present study the authors used only aptitude and motivation measures, as their earlier studies have shown that anxiety and learning styles instruments have numerous conceptual and measurement problems (Au, 1988; Ganschow & Sparks, 1996; Ganschow et al., 1994; Sparks, 2006a; Sparks & Ganschow, 2007, Sparks et al., 1997b).

L2 aptitude tests were among the earliest predictors of FL proficiency and achievement (Carroll, 1990). One of the most common L2 aptitude tests is the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) (Carroll & Sapon, 1959). Based on factor analytic studies conducted by Carroll (1962), the MLAT measures four aspects of language aptitude: learning and remembering sound/symbol relationships (phonetic coding), inferring grammar rules (grammatical sensitivity), native language vocabulary (inductive language learning ability) and rote learning capacity (rote memory). In the 1980s, Skehan conducted a longitudinal study of first language development with children initially tested at age three to examine the origins of L2 aptitude and determine whether L2 aptitude was related to L2 achievement (Skehan, 1986). In that study, he used subtests from an elementary version of the MLAT as well as other L1 measures and tests of L2 aptitude. His results showed strong correlations between early indices of first language development and both L2 achievement and L2 aptitude. Further analysis of the data showed that the L2 aptitude measures accounted for most of the success in L2 achievement. More recent findings have suggested that the MLAT is a strong predictor of L2 proficiency and achievement (see e.g. Ehrman & Oxford, 1995; Skehan, 2002; Sparks & Ganschow, 2001).

Non-cognitive variables (anxiety, personality, motivation, attitudes) have been studied extensively in L2 research. Researchers have speculated that motivation, in particular, may play a role in predicting success or failure in L2 learning. Generally, motivation is described as students' attitudes about, interest in, and efforts towards learning a L2 (Gardner et al., 1997). Gardner and his colleagues (Gardner, 1985a; Gardner & Lambert, 1965) have conducted extensive research into the construct of motivation and its relationship to L2 learning. In his socio-educational model of second language acquisition, Gardner proposed that motivation was a good predictor of L2 achievement, a finding that has been supported in subsequent studies (see review by Gardner, 1990). A commonly used test to measure motivation is Gardner's Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) to determine students' levels of motivation of L2 learning (Gardner, 1985b). The survey includes questions concerning attitudes towards other language groups, attitudes towards the learning situation in the classroom context and general motivation about learning an L2 (Gardner, 1990). Masgoret and Gardner (2003) conducted a meta-analysis of the contribution of attitudes and motivation to L2 achievement using the AMTB. They found overall correlations ranging from 0.29 to 0.39, depending on the achievement criteria measures. Their findings showed that motivation makes a modest, but significant, contribution to L2 achievement.

Comparison Studies with Disabled and Non-disabled L2 Learners

Much of the work on classified populations and L2 learning has been conducted by the authors, who have compared good and poor L2 learners as well as learners classified as LD, ADHD and LD/ADHD. As might be expected, students classified as LD have been found to perform significantly more poorly than high-achieving L2 learners on the aforementioned L1, L2 aptitude and L2 proficiency measures (see Ganschow et al., 1991; Sparks et al., 1992b). Of particular interest to this investigation were studies comparing students classified as at-risk for learning an L2 with students classified as LD. In several studies the authors found that although the two groups performed significantly more poorly than high-achieving L2 learners, there were few differences between the two populations on L1, L2 aptitude and L2 proficiency measures (e.g. see reviews by Sparks, 2001, 2005). Within groups of students classified as LD there were no differences between those who chose to complete L2 courses and those who elected to take L2 course substitutions (allowable at many universities in the United States) on multiple L1 measures of academic achievement (see Sparks, 2006b; Sparks et al., 1999).

Sparks and colleagues have conducted three studies on ADHD populations and L2 performance. In general, the findings of these studies show that students classified as ADHD enrolled in L2 courses are not likely to experience particular difficulties with L2 learning, as measured by their performance in L2 courses (Sparks et al., 2003, 2004b, 2005). In one study, students classified as both LD and ADHD performed better on measures of L1 achievement than students classified as LD alone.

The authors have conducted one investigation related to the present study that involved the same four populations (Sparks et al., 2008a). In that study they followed these groups over two years of L2 study and compared their performance on a variety of measures, including L1 achievement and cognitive ability administered in elementary school prior to their enrollment in L2 courses, L2 aptitude, L2 decoding and spelling, and oral and written L2 achievement measured at the end of L2 coursework. Findings showed no significant differences between the low-achieving and LD groups and few differences between the high-achieving and ADHD groups; however, significant differences were found between the high-achieving group and the low-achieving and LD groups.

Research Aims and Rationale

The aforementioned studies lead into the primary purpose of the present study; that is, to determine how accurately a carefully selected battery of L1 and L2 instruments discriminates group membership in four specified groups of L2 learners: students classified as LD, students classified as ADHD, students identified as high-achieving by specified criteria, and students identified as low-achieving by specified criteria. If low-achieving L2 learners perform similarly to students classified as LD on L1 and L2 testing measures, might there not be shared membership in both groups? If ADHD students perform similarly to high-achieving L2 learners on the testing measures, might their performance yield shared membership with the high-achieving group? A secondary purpose of this study is to determine whether an affective variable, L2 motivation, is important for determining group membership. Few studies with good and poor L2 learners have used both cognitive (L1 and L2 literacy, L1 cognitive ability, L2 aptitude) and non-cognitive (affective) measures as variables in the same study (McCollum, 2003). In addition, most studies with L2 learners have been short-term, covering only one to two years. In the present study, participants' L1 achievement and L1 cognitive ability scores from elementary school were obtained, and they were followed through their entry into L2 courses several years later.

Method

Participants

The participants were 156 students who attended a large, suburban, public high school in a medium-sized, mid-western city in the United States. All of the participants had enrolled in first-year Spanish classes in either their freshman (Grade 9) or sophomore (Grade 10) years. (Students in the United States generally begin to study a second language in high school.) None of the participants spoke a second language or had prior experience in L2 courses. Three different cohorts of students over three different years were used to obtain a sufficient number of high- and low-achieving learners and students classified as LD and ADHD. There were similar numbers of students in each of the three cohorts (Cohort 1 = 45 students, Cohort 2 = 56 students, Cohort 3 = 55 students). There were 86 males and 70 females in the study. The mean age of the students at the beginning of the study was 14 years, 4 months (ages ranged from 14.0 years to 15.4 years). To maintain anonymity, each participant was identified by his/her student identification number used by the school district.

(Continues...)

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Table of Contents

Introduction - Judit Kormos and Edit H. Kontra 1. L1 and L2 Literacy, Aptitude, and Affective Variables as Discriminators among High- and Low-achieving L2 Learners with Special Needs - Richard L. Sparks, Leonore Ganschow and Jon Patton 2. Writing Abilities in First and Second Language Learners with and without Reading Disabilities - Katherine Ndlovu and Esther Geva 3. Second Language Assessment in Dyslexia: Principles and Practice - Turid Helland 4. Input, Processing and Output Anxiety in Students with Symptoms of Developmental Dyslexia - Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel 5. Vocabulary Learning in Dyslexia – The Case of a Hungarian Learner - Ágnes Sarkadi 6. An Experiment with Direct Multisensory Instruction in Teaching Word Reading and Spelling to Polish Dyslexic Learners of English - Joanna Nijakowska 7. Deaf EFL Learners Outside the School System - Ágnes Bajkó and Edit H. Kontra 8. Hungarian Teachers’ Perceptions of Dyslexic Language Learners - Judit Kormos and Edit H. Kontra 9. Teachers’ and Trainers’ Perceptions of Inclusive Education within TEFL Certificate Courses in Britain - Anne Margaret Smith

Editorial Reviews

This book provides new and important insights into the subject of language learners with special needs from a number of perspectives, especially on topics related to learners' personal experiences of language learning. People with special needs are given a 'voice' which is imperative and very worthwhile, reflecting current approaches to understanding so-called "impairment" or "difference" in many other fields of study.

Irene Walsh

Many people with physical or learning disabilities would like to master a second language. Yet, as the Editors explain, existing methods and materials are usually geared at the needs of the more able majority, and little attention is devoted to those with special needs. This collection of research studies from five different countries put the spotlight on this latter group of potential learners by drawing attention to the fact that in order for them to succeed, they would need "different methods and materials, differently prepared teachers, more guidance and a much more supportive learning environment". Creating equal educational opportunities for all is a goal that every applied linguist would surely subscribe to and therefore I applaud this pioneering volume for contributing to the process of putting language education within reach for people with disabilities.

Professor Zolt

Many people with physical or learning disabilities would like to master a second language. Yet, as the Editors explain, existing methods and materials are usually geared at the needs of the more able majority, and little attention is devoted to those with special needs. This collection of research studies from five different countries put the spotlight on this latter group of potential learners by drawing attention to the fact that in order for them to succeed, they would need "different methods and materials, differently prepared teachers, more guidance and a much more supportive learning environment". Creating equal educational opportunities for all is a goal that every applied linguist would surely subscribe to and therefore I applaud this pioneering volume for contributing to the process of putting language education within reach for people with disabilities.

Professor Zoltán Dörnyei (University of Nottingham)