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Edward IV, England's Forgotten Warrior King
His Life, His People, and His Legacy
By Anthony Corbet iUniverse
Copyright © 2015 Dr. Anthony Corbet
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-4917-4633-2
CHAPTER 1
The Struggle for the Crown
The Birth of Edward IV in 1442, and His Disputed Legitimacy
Edward IV was born on 28 April 1442 in the French town of Rouen during the Hundred Years War. His mother was Cecily Neville, a great-granddaughter of King Edward III. Edward IV's father was Richard Plantagenet (1411–1460), the third duke of York, a great-great-great-grandson of King Edward III. Edward IV was tall and handsome. Because of this, he was known when he was younger as the Rose of Rouen.
Assuming that Edward IV was born at forty weeks' gestation, it has been calculated, according to logs kept in the cathedral at Rouen, that Edward's father may have been away from home at the time of his son's conception ("Britain's Real Monarch," 2004). The duke was on military operations at Pontoise, near Paris, from 14 July to 21 August 1441, but the calculated date of Edward's conception is 4 August 1441, which might suggest that Edward was illegitimate ("Edward IV of England," 2014). French historians have even suggested who the biological father might be, but this should be regarded with considerable suspicion. If Edward was born at thirty-seven weeks' gestation, then the calculated date of conception is 25 August 1441. This likely coincides with the time soon after Richard's return from Pontoise, which might suggest that he had a happy reunion with Cecily. An infant that is gestated for thirty-seven weeks is often vigorous, suckles well, needs only simple nursery attention, and weighs only a pound less than a forty-week infant. Many authorities consider thirty-seven weeks to be full term, which throws considerable doubt on claims that Edward IV might have been illegitimate. His mother never publicly admitted to any illegitimacy, and his father did not deny that Edward was his son and legal heir, which made Edward legitimate under English common law. Considering the possible errors in the above calculations, it is not unreasonable to consider that Edward may have even been born at thirty-seven and a half weeks' gestation, very near full term, even by the strictest standards.
However, Edward's baptism was muted and private, unlike the lavish baptism of a later son, Edmund, for whom the cathedral in Rouen was thrown open to the public. If Edward was born at thirty-seven weeks' gestation, then perhaps some evidence of frailty was apparent and caution was suggested to his family. When he was older, Edward was tall and well built, unlike his short, spare father. The claim of illegitimacy was made by other members of the family, including two of Edward's younger brothers, Richard and George, and his cousin Richard Neville. But this was a dysfunctional family, and all had seriously doubtful motives at the time. It was even alleged that Edward's mother, while angry with him over his later, secret marriage, threatened to expose him. Such an admission by Proud Cis, however, would have been extremely unlikely.
In her last will and testament, as described by Arlene Okerlund (2005), Duchess Cecily made it clear that Richard, Duke of York, was the father of Edward IV. Cecily stated as follows: "I, Cecily, wife unto the right noble prince, Richard late Duke of York, father unto the most Christian prince, my Lord and son, King Edward IV, the first day of April in the year of our Lord 1495, make and ordain my testament in form and manner ensuing" (emphasis added). It is not likely that Cecily would have lied in her last will; she could have simply ignored the problem if there was one. Sceptical historians have not settled the question, but the claim of all subsequent English monarchs through Edward's eldest daughter, Princess Elizabeth of York, has never been seriously challenged. Therefore, the course of English history has confirmed that Edward IV was a legitimate son. The case against Edward IV is absolutely unproven. Accusations of illegitimacy were very common in the Middle Ages and, in the absence of scientific knowledge, often difficult to refute. But this accusation in the case of King Edward IV has little to support it.
The Tragic Reign of King Henry VI, 1422–61
Henry VI was the son of King Henry V and Catherine of Valois. Catherine was a daughter of the French King Charles VI (see Appendix A). When Henry V died of dysentery in 1422, the new King Henry VI was only nine months old, so John, Duke of Bedford, the oldest brother of Henry V, was regent for the considerable English possessions in northern France. Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, another brother of Henry V, was Lord Protector of England while Bedford was in France (see Appendix B). It was apparently intended that Gloucester should defer to Bedford when Bedford was in England. In practice, the chancellor, Bishop Henry Beaufort, retained most control over English affairs. It could be said that Bedford was regent of England and France and that Gloucester was deputy in England when Bedford was in France (Weir, 1995).
John Bedford had some initial military success in France, notably with his decisive victory at the Battle of Verneuil in 1424, but he did badly with the emergence of Joan of Arc as commander of the French forces in the years before 1430. However, in 1431, Joan of Arc was captured, tried as a witch, and martyred by being burnt at the stake. Bedford died in 1435, exhausted by his efforts. With the First Treaty of Arras in 1435, France and Burgundy made peace with each other. Since Burgundy had previously helped the English, from that point onwards, English fortunes in France progressively declined.
Following the death of Bedford, Richard, Duke of York, was appointed lieutenant in France for a two-year term. He arrived soon after the fall of Paris to French forces in 1436 and seems to have concentrated his efforts in Normandy. With the help of John Talbot, the earl of Shrewsbury, and some of Bedford's captains, Richard drove the French forces out of the province. He had notable success with the recapture of Fecamp and held on to the Pays de Caux. His term was extended for another two years. As the London government did not pay him for his considerable expenses, York refused to continue when his term was up. He went back to England at the end of 1439.
But in 1440, the duke of York was again appointed lieutenant in Normandy for a term of five years, which was later extended another two years, to 1447. His task was to negotiate a satisfactory peace with the French. Although promises had been made, again, his expenses were not covered. In 1443, William de la Pole, the first duke of Suffolk, the king's favourite minister, sent John Beaufort, the first duke of Somerset (see Appendix D) with a force of eight thousand men to Gascony to help restore order. York was unhappy with this arrangement, as it detracted from his own efforts in Normandy by taking money and resources. Somerset failed miserably in Gascony, returned to Normandy, and died in England in 1444, possibly by suicide. Also in 1444, Suffolk brought an embassy to France and negotiated an agreement with King Charles VII. There had developed in English politics a paralyzing schism over the war in France. The boy King Henry VI; Cardinal Beaufort, an uncle of the first duke of Somerset (see Appendix D); and the duke of Suffolk together headed the Peace Party. Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, and Richard, Duke of York, were in favour of continuing the war in France and headed the War Party, consistent with the deathbed wishes of King Henry V.
With the Treaty of Tours in 1444, the English and French agreed to a two-year truce, to start in 1445. This was later extended in several stages to mid 1450, so, during this period (1445–50), there was a pause in the fighting. Under terms of the treaty, Henry VI agreed to marry Margaret of Anjou, a niece by marriage of Charles VII (see Appendix A). England agreed to surrender the province of Maine to the French, a surrender which, when it became known, proved very unpopular with the English people. In return, the English were allowed to keep the Aquitaine in south-west France, a not inconsiderable concession when considering the deteriorating military situation. But what made the agreement so unpopular in England was that there was to be no marriage dowry. In return for the hard-won province of Maine, England would receive a penniless French princess. The people considered this to be a very bad bargain. In 1445, Henry VI married the beautiful but wilful Margaret of Anjou, who thus became the queen consort of England. It was not until 1448 that Maine was finally surrendered to France after much angry controversy, which only worsened the great friction between England and France. Charles VII used the prolonged truce to greatly improve his forces and plan a final military offensive against the English occupation; in particular, he greatly improved his artillery to counterbalance the deadly English longbow.
In 1447, Suffolk appointed Richard, Duke of York, to Ireland as Lord Lieutenant and replaced him as lieutenant in France with Edmund Beaufort, who was the second duke of Somerset (see Appendix D), a great-grandson of Edward III, and a possible heir to the childless King Henry VI. In practice, York did not go to Ireland until 1449; he stayed in England to attend to his own affairs. He considered the appointment to be the Peace Party's device to exclude him from English politics.
The government in England was extremely unpopular. Complaints centred on excessive taxation, profligate government spending, low wages, corruption in the judicial courts, maladministration in the counties, and poor progress in consolidating the affairs in France. The king's advisors looked after their own interests rather than those of the whole country, accumulating considerable wealth at the expense of the naive and overgenerous King Henry VI.
In January 1450, the Lord Privy Seal, Bishop Moleyns, was lynched by an angry mob in a dispute over naval wage payments. This was a reflection of widespread disorder. There followed in June 1450 the rebellion of Jack Cade, who led a large force of disaffected English yeomen, mostly from Kent. They captured and executed Lord Say, the Lord High Treasurer of England. After much chaos and a pitched battle on London Bridge, the king's army finally killed Jack Cade and ended the insurrection by July 1450. There followed many short trials. At least thirty-five rebels were beheaded in the infamous Harvest of Heads.
In the meantime, the truce of 1445, with its several extensions to 1450, was broken by the English when they occupied the Breton town of Fougères in March 1449. This operation was carried out by the second duke of Somerset, the newly appointed lieutenant, and had been sanctioned by Suffolk. Charles VII declared war in July 1449. His newly reorganized military forces flourished, but Somerset proved a poor choice as the English commander. Brittany was lost by 1449; Normandy was lost by 1450; Guyenne, with its capital at Bordeaux, was lost by 1451; and Gascony, with its capital at Bayonne, was lost by 1453. These constant English defeats signalled the end of the Hundred Years War. The Battle of Formigny on 15 August 1450 was a catastrophic disaster for England. Suffolk was blamed, tried in Parliament for treason, and sent into exile. On the way to Burgundy, he was captured at sea and brutally beheaded by angry English partisans. England was flooded with unpaid and destructive soldiers returning home after the disastrous losses in France. As a result, disorder and brigandage in England were widespread.
The Rebellion of Richard Duke of York; the Armed Confrontation at Dartford in 1452; the Battle of Castillon in 1453; and the Madness of King Henry VI
The English people were furious about all of these events, especially the loss of Normandy. Richard, Duke of York, returned from Ireland and marched on London with a large number of troops and with enormous public support. In a direct confrontation with the king in his chambers at Westminster Palace on 29 September 1450, the duke of York demanded the resignation of Somerset and many of his corrupt associates. Parliament was called. It passed an Act of Resumption, which called for the return to the Crown of much of the property distributed so generously by the king to his favourites. The duke of York, acting with Parliament, appeared briefly to gain control. On 1 December 1450, Parliament impeached Somerset for his military failures in France. He was taken to the Tower. But almost immediately, Queen Margaret rejected Parliament's decision and had Somerset released. The House of Lords, always suspicious of York, supported the king, so the duke had to back down. By May 1451, York's opponents were back in charge of English affairs. Then, Parliament, at the instigation of a member named Thomas Young, a supporter of Richard, Duke of York, requested that the king settle the issue of his heir. The king refused, had Thomas Young sent to the Tower, and then dissolved Parliament on 31 May 1451. With Parliament gone, the duke of York retired, humiliated, to his seat at Ludlow in the Welsh Marches.
By then, York had realized that the king would not allow any government reform unless he was forced. On 3 February 1452 at Shrewsbury, York issued a manifesto stating that the troubles in England would not cease until the corrupt Somerset was permanently removed from the government. The duke of York then mustered troops and marched towards London. The king and queen raised a royal army and marched out of London on 16 February 1452 to intercept York as he approached the capital, but York evaded the king. Near London, on 29 February 1452, York drew up in battle order at Dartford on the south side of the River Thames. The royal army followed and reached Blackheath on 1 March 1452. The next day, they advanced close to the duke of York's position. It seemed that civil war was about to erupt. The two armies were very large by the standards of the time, each about twenty thousand men, but most of the peerage remained on the side of the king.
Neither side wanted a battle, so at negotiations it was agreed that if York dismissed his army, then the king would have Somerset imprisoned. Naively, York carried out his part of the agreement and dismissed his army, but the queen, yet again, immediately ordered the release of Somerset. During further negotiations at Blackheath, the duke of York, surprised and angered to find Somerset still present in the king's tent – and with his own Yorkist military support gone home – was effectively taken prisoner and was only released after he had promised never again to rebel against the king's government. York was fortunate not to be executed for treason, but the council feared to move against him because of his strong public support, especially in London. For the second time, the duke of York retired, humiliated, to Ludlow. The king issued general pardons and tried to restore his relations with York. On 12 August 1452, he visited with the duke in Ludlow, but there was no agreement. For another year, York remained excluded from power.
In late 1452, John Talbot, the earl of Shrewsbury, with a comparatively small force, sailed to the duchy of Aquitaine and occupied Bordeaux on 17 October 1452. After the elapse of the winter season, the English captured many of the surrounding towns and there was a temporary restoration of English confidence. But then the government in London procrastinated and failed to provide sorely needed reinforcements for Shrewsbury. On 17 July 1453, the French used their improved cannons to decisively defeat the English at the Battle of Castillon. The heroic earl of Shrewsbury was killed. This disaster effectively ended the Hundred Years War, but it meant that civil war was near in England.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Edward IV, England's Forgotten Warrior King by Anthony Corbet. Copyright © 2015 Dr. Anthony Corbet. Excerpted by permission of iUniverse.
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