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Sisterhood Is Global

The International Women's Movement Anthology

OPEN ROAD INTEGRATED MEDIA

AFGHANISTAN

(Democratic Republic of Afghanistan)

Located in the Persian Gulf region, bounded by Pakistan to the east and south, Iran to the west, and the USSR to the north. Area: 636,266 sq. km. (245,664 sq. mi.). Population (1980): 15,886,000, female 49%. Capital: Kabul.

DEMOGRAPHY. Languages: Pushtu, Dari (both official), Uzbek (Turkic). Races or Ethnic Groups: Pushtun 50%, Tajik 25%, Uzbek 9%, Hazara 9%, other. Religions: Islam (Sunni 80%, Shi'ite 20%). Education (% enrolled in school, 1975): Age 6–11 — of all girls 5%, of all boys 26%; age 12–17 — of all girls 4%, of all boys 23%; higher education — no data obtainable. Literacy (1977): Women 4%, men 19%. Birth Rate (per 1000 pop., 1975–80): 48. Death Rate (per 1000 pop., 1975–80): 21. Infant Mortality (per 1000 live births, 1975–80): Female 208, male 244. Life Expectancy (1975–80): Female 43 yrs., male 42 yrs.

GOVERNMENT. Soviet-backed regime (since 1979) led by President Babrak Karmal, who heads a 35-member Revolutionary Council as well as the Central Committee of the only legal party, the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan. Women's Suffrage: 1965. Equal Rights: 1977 Afghan Constitution (Art. 27) states, "All the people of Afghanistan, both women and men, without discrimination and privilege, have equal rights and obligations before the law." Women in Government: Anahita Ratebzad, a member of Parliament from 1965–69, is State Ambassador. Ms. Khadija Ahrari, Ms. Roqia, and Ms. Masuma Ismati-Wardak were active parliamentarians (1965–69), Kobra Nourzai was Minister of Public Heath (1965–69), Shafiqa Ziayee Minister without portfolio (1971–72) Few women currently (1984) in higher government echelons.

ECONOMY. Currency: Afghani (May 1983: 89. = $1 US). Gross National Product (1979): $3.4 billion. Per Capita Income (1979): $225. Women's Wages as a Percentage of Men's: No data obtainable. Equal Pay Policy: No data obtainable. Production (Agricultural/Industrial): Wheat, grains, cotton, fruit; soap, furniture, textiles, coal, carpets. Women as a Percentage of Labor Force (1980): 19%; of agricultural force — no general statistics obtainable (87% of women workers are employed in agriculture, 1975); of industrial force — no general statistics obtainable (of manufacturing 60%, 1979); of military — no statistics obtainable; a few women in service sector only. (Employed) Women's Occupational Indicators (1979): Of administrative, managerial, and related workers 0.6%, of sales workers 1.5%, of service workers 3.9%, of clerical and related workers 8.5%, of professional, technical, and related workers 13.5%; the majority of employed women are doctors or teachers (urban) but these are not necessarily considered high-status jobs. Unemployment (1981): No statistics obtainable, but female rate is reportedly higher than male.

GYNOGRAPHY. Marriage. Policy: Based on interpretation of the Hanafi school of law in Islamic jurisprudence, the 1976 Civil Code set the legal marriage age at 16 for females (15 with paternal consent) and 18 for males. Both spouses are free to choose their marriage partner; the Civil Code allows a couple to marry despite family opposition. (Dowry was legally abolished by the 1971 Marriage Law (Art. 16). Polygyny is legal; a man may marry more than 1 wife if 1) there is no injustice to any wife, 2) the (husband is financially able to provide necessities for all the wives (food, clothing, housing, and health care), and 3) a lawful reason exists for the second marriage (e.g., the first wife is barren or seriously ill). In inheritance matters, 1/3 of a Moslem woman's or man's property can be controlled or disposed of as s/he wishes. The, other 2/3 is distributed according to Islamic law: a female inherits ½ the share of a male. A widow is entitled to ¼ of her husband's estate if he has no children; otherwise, she receives 1/8. Practice: Female mean age at marriage (1970–78): 18; women age 15–49 in union (1970–78): 81%. The number of polygynous marriages has decreased recently; some reports cite the high cost of living and economic provisions in the 1977 Constitution as the major deterrents. Reports indicate, however, that wives of polygynous husbands are unlikely to divorce since they would forfeit their dowry The touyana or maehr (dowry), although legally abolished, persists, and includes money, a complete wardrobe for the bride, and jewels, which remain her property (or her family's). Among the Shi'ite Moslems, fixed-period "temporary marriages" or mut'a (sigha in Persian) are still practiced in some nomadic communities, although legally abolished; concubinage still is practiced in some areas. The preferred mate in Afghan society is the parallel cousin (father's brother's daughter), since this keeps dowry in the family; intrafamily marriages exist in rural and nomadic communities.

Divorce. [Policy: Legal. The 1976 Civil Code (Art. 135, Sec. 2) allows a man to divorce his wife verbally (talaq) or in writing. A wife can divorce her husband only by judicial process, on the grounds that her husband has an incurable illness, if she is compromised while living with her husband, if he refuses or is unable to support her financially, or if he is imprisoned for 10 yrs. or more — whereby she can demand separation after the first 5 yrs. of his imprisonment. In addition, Art. 183 of the Code allows a wife to divorce whether or not she can prove the existence of prejudice or harm if arbitration fails to reconcile the couple. Art. 88 of the Code allows a wife to stipulate in writing (when she registers her marriage) her right to divorce if her husband takes a second wife; Art. 89 grants a woman divorce if her husband has hidden the existence of another wife. After marriage dissolution a mother receives custody of a boy up to age 7 and a girl up to age 9, after which custody rests with the father. The period may be extended by 2 yrs. for both boys and girls if it is considered to be in the child's interest. A mother who remarries or is seen to "behave immorally" forfeits custody. Practice: No statistics obtainable. Divorce is considered a family "dishonor"; families sometimes refuse to welcome a divorced daughter back home. Family. Policy: 1978 legislation provided a "Family Health Plan" aimed at helping the mother and child. A husband is allowed a tax exemption for a wife, and families are allowed exemptions for each of the first 5 children and for unemployed parents. In inheritance, if the father has no sons, his daughter receives ½ his estate; if he left more than 1 daughter, but no son, the daughters share 2/3 of his estate. If he left both daughters and sons, the daughters' shares are ½ the sons'. Practice: No data obtainable. Welfare. Policy: A limited Social Security system exists, but there is no unemployment compensation. No further data obtainable (see Family). Practice: Few people benefit from Social Security, although it does provide shelters for the homeless. Pensions are reportedly small. No further data obtainable.

Contraception. Policy: Legal. Government supports family planning for health and human rights reasons. Practice: Women age 15–49 in union using contraception (1970–80): 2%, of which modern methods 100%. Distribution of contraceptives is scarce and most (especially rural) women have little access to information or devices. Abortion. [Policy: Legal only in case of danger to the woman's life, and based on a reading of Islamic law which states: "No mother shall be treated unfairly on account of her child." Practice: No statistics obtainable. A controversial issue because interpretations of Islamic law vary. Because children are economically vital, emphasis is put on spacing births, not reducing them. Illegitimacy.Policy: Under the 1976 Civil Code, the child of a couple in which 1 (or both) spouse(s) is under age 15 will be considered legitimate. No further data obtainable. Practice: No statistics obtainable. Out-of-wedlock children have low social status; reports indicate a low percentage of such births.) Polygyny and "temporary" marriages produce some out-of-wedlock children: a father has the legal right to repudiate his child if he suspects his wife of "disloyalty" even if his own parentage has been established); the wife's testimony carries little weight. Homosexuality. Policy: Illegal; punishable by imprisonment. No further data obtainable. Practice: No data obtainable. Incest. Policy: No data obtainable. Practice: No statistics obtainable (see Marriage). Sexual Harassment. Policy: None. Practice: No data obtainable. Rape. Policy: Marital rape is not recognized. No further data obtainable.

Practice: No statistics obtainable. Reportedly, rape is rare, owing in part to swift vengeance on the rapist by the victim's family. A raped woman may be repudiated by her "dishonored" husband or family. Battery. Policy: No specific data obtainable, but the Afghan Family Code gives males absolute control over female family members. Legislation (1978) supported a "change of attitude" in male domination over women. Practice: No statistics obtainable. Wife-beating is reportedly a common social practice. Families offer little protection, as they are afraid of losing the dowry money. Prostitution. Policy: No data obtainable on specific laws, but 1978 legislation outlawed the practice of selling young girls. Practice: No statistics obtainable. Afghanistan lies along the female sexual slavery traffick route from Africa and the Far East to Europe. Traditional/Cultural Practices. [Policy: No data obtainable. Practice: Dowry murders sometimes occur (see pages 10–12) as do "bride-kidnappings," especially in rural areas. Crisis Centers: No data obtainable.

HERSTORY. Afghan women have been active in national liberation struggles for centuries. Malalai carried the flag at the battle of Maiwand against the British colonialists in the 19th century. Rabia Balkhi, a poet and philosopher, was also an activist. The Afghan women's movement began officially in 1921, when King Amanullah launched an "emancipation program for women." The 1921 Family Code forbade child marriages, encouraged girls' schools, and banned polygamy for government employees. Removal of the veil was part of "Islamic duty," to provide women with the prerequisites to "fully participate in the society." The King shocked Afghan society by permitting his wife, Queen Suraya, to unveil in public.

Conservative backlash followed; Islamic fundamentalists claimed the new code would destroy the social structure of the family and cause sexual anarchy. King Amanullah was overthrown in 1929; his successor, Nader Shah, reinstated the veil. The repressive codes lasted until 1946, when Queen Homaira, wife of Nader Shah's son and successor, Zaher Shah, created the Women's Society, the first institution for Afghan women. In 1959 the Queen supported Prime Minister Daoud Khan's call for "Voluntary removal" of the veil, a measure taken up by a small percentage of educated women. Women who unveiled were accused of rejecting Islamic tradition. Eventually, as these women were seen functioning without a "loss of honor," more women unveiled and began organizing for other changes. In 1975 Daoud (then President of the New Republic) called for marriages based on "equivalence." He was killed in a coup in Apr. 1978.

The Dec. 1979 invasion of Afghanistan by Soviet troops (under the mutual defense Treaty of Friendship) drew almost universal protest by Afghan women, especially after 70 schoolchildren were killed in a brick-throwing, slogan-chanting, antigovernment demonstration on Apr. 27, 1980. A schoolgirl named Naheed led the protest, and became an instant heroine. The massacre inspired daily demonstrations by women. The Djamiat-e-Enqilabi-Zaman -e-Afghanistan (Afghanistan Women's Revolutionary League) surfaced in 1979, its purpose to organize women and girls into the national resistance struggle. Farida Ahmadi, one of the League's leaders, was imprisoned and tortured in 1981, but escaped. On Apr. 28, 1983, the Soviet-backed Afghan government announced the release of all female prisoners and some male prisoners; nearly 100,000 persons were estimated to have been imprisoned. According to UN estimates, more than 3 million Afghan refugees have fled to neighboring countries (see IRAN and PAKISTAN) since 1979; more than half of them are women.

MYTHOGRAPHY. The oral tradition of folk and fairy tales common among nomadic peoples is also to be found in Afghanistan. The goddess Harity, represented as having suckled demons, was a remnant of a Mother Goddess figure from the ancient territory of the Gandaras. She was subsequently assimilated by the Buddhist (early 2nd century C.E.) and Islamic (early 7th century) cultures, but has persisted as a presence in legends.

AFGHANISTAN: The Silent Victims

by Sima Wali

Clutching at the cold prison-gate bars, Mastoora waits in the middle of a silent crowd for the posting of names of political prisoners at the Puli Charkhi jail in Kabul. The entire crowd is waiting for the list that will tell them if a brother, father, nephew, son, or grandchild is being held as a political prisoner in the deadly jail. Some have laid out their prayer rugs on the frozen ground and are offering prayers to Allah to deliver their relative from torture or execution.

A young soldier approaches with the list revealing the names of those held in this particular jail. The names of those not listed conveys dreaded news: execution. The crowd draws closer. Suddenly a young child breaks away from his mother and runs to one of the guards: "Uncle, uncle, when can I see my father?" he cries, and begs to be let in. The soldier gently pushes him away. But tears glisten in the soldier's eyes; he too is helpless in this situation. He mumbles under his breath, "I wish I could help you."

A middle-aged woman wearing the veil lets out a blood-chilling cry. A guard has risked his own life to bring news of her brother. "Sister," he tells her, "don't trouble yourself to wait here anymore. May God forgive your brother's soul." She passes out on the snowy ground. A few people rush to her aid. There is nothing the crowd can do to help ease her pain.

An old Pushtun woman has brought warm clothes and some food for her grandson. She may be the sole survivor of her family; it's uncommon for an Afghan woman to visit a prison site if there are any male relatives left to undertake this task. She draws the bundle from under her veil and pleads with the guards to take it inside the prison. Finally, out of traditional compassion for the elderly, he agrees. The rapport between the crowd and the prison guards is exceptional. The crowd knows that the guards secretly help the visitors and is grateful. But soldiers have orders from higher authorities, too, and any breach can lead to their death.

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Excerpted from Sisterhood Is Global by Robin Morgan. Copyright © 1996 Robin Morgan. Excerpted by permission of OPEN ROAD INTEGRATED MEDIA.
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