Table of Contents
Preface to the Third Edition xi
1 Search and Research for Satisfaction: An Introduction to Outdoor Recreation Research
Objectives of the Book 1
Research in Outdoor Recreation 4
Search and Research for Satisfaction 11
Diversity in Outdoor Recreation 16
Quality in Outdoor Recreation 18
Summary and Conclusions 19
2 Social Aspects of Outdoor Recreation: Use and Users
Recreation Use and Users 22
Outdoor Recreation Activity 23
Use Distribution and Dynamics 30
Social Correlates of Outdoor Recreation 33
Cultural Influences on Outdoor Recreation 39
Summary and Conclusions 56
3 Descriptive Aspects of Outdoor Recreation: Attitudes, Preferences, Perceptions
Visitor Attitudes and Preferences 59
Developed Areas 60
Backcountry and Wilderness Areas 63
Trade-offs Among Recreation Conditions 71
Perceptions of Environmental Impacts 74
Visitor Versus Manager Perceptions 76
Summary and Conclusions 79
4 Carrying Capacity: Protecting Recreation Resources and the Visitor Experience
Origins of Carrying Capacity 81
Carrying Capacity and Recreation 82
Limits of Acceptable Change 84
Management Objectives and Indicators and Standards of Quality 86
Carrying Capacity Frameworks 87
The Status of Carrying Capacity 93
Summary and Conclusions 95
5 Crowding in Outdoor Recreation: Use Level, Perceived Crowding, and Visitor Satisfaction
Concern with Crowding 98
Empirical Studies of Crowding 99
The Satisfaction Model 101
Testing the Satisfaction Model 102
Expanding the Satisfaction Model 105
Normative Definitions of Crowding 116
Methodological Issues 129
An Expanded Crowding Model 134
Summary and Conclusions 135
6 Indicators and Standards of Quality: A Normative Approach
A Normative Approach 137
Norm Theory and Methods 138
Indicators of Quality 139
Standards of Quality 146
Theoretical and Methodological Issues 150
Summary and Conclusions 163
7 Motivations and Benefits in Outdoor Recreation: A Behavioral Approach
Early Explorations 166
A Behavioral Approach to Recreation 167
Empirical Tests of the Behavioral Approach 169
Benefits-Based Management 181
Conceptual and Methodological Issues 186
Summary and Conclusions 188
8 The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum: Designs for Diversity
Designs for Diversity 190
The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum 192
Linking Activities, Settings, Motivations, and Benefits 196
Extending the Opportunity Spectrum 201
Summary and Conclusions 204
9 Recreation Conflict: Goal Interference and Social Values
Conflict in Outdoor Recreation 206
Theoretical Models 208
Empirical Studies of Conflict 211
Measuring Conflict 215
An Expanded Conflict Model 216
Managing Conflict 217
Summary and Conclusions 218
10 Substitutability: Alternative Recreation Opportunities
The Concept of Substitutability 220
Activity Types 221
Direct Measures of Substitutability 224
Theory and Methods of Substitutability 231
Summary and Conclusions 235
11 Specialization in Recreation: Experience and Related Concepts
Recreation Experience 237
Measures of Recreation Experience 238
From Experience to Specialization 242
Theory and Methods of Specialization 248
Summary and Conclusions 253
12 Outdoor Recreation Places: Emotional and Symbolic Meanings
An Alternative Approach 256
Measures of Place Attachment and Bonding 257
Theoretical Considerations 262
Summary and Conclusions 271
13 Managing Outdoor Recreation: Alternative Management Practices
Outdoor Recreation Management 273
Alternative Management Practices 279
Evaluating Management Practices 279
Information and Education 279
Use Rationing and Allocation 292
Other Recreation Management Practices 306
Status and Trends in Recreation Management 315
Summary and Conclusions 319
14 Principles and Practices of Outdoor Recreation: Knowledge into Action
Knowledge into Action 322
Principles of Outdoor Recreation 322
A Recreation Management Framework 328
Observations on Recreation Management 335
Relating Research and Management 337
Evolution of Research 341
Summary and Conclusions 342
Appendix A Tables 6-1 and 6-2 345
Appendix B Notes on Sources: A Guide to the Social Science Literature in Outdoor Recreation 382
Bibliography 393
Index 464
